Every year I always see a new influx of people getting interested in and inspired by the mythologies of the Philippines. It’s been such an amazing feeling seeing more and more people taking a step back and embracing our myths.
Back in September of 2020 I made a blog post discussing the Tagalog deities and who they were. Since then I have been asked a many times to write a post for the Bisayans. Who were the deities? How did our Bisayan ancestors see the world? Well today, I’ll finally be discussing them.
“In every town they have their god, all called Diwata in general, but as a personal name, that of their own.”
– Relación de las Islas del Poniente by Juan de la Isla (1565)
The Bisayans had many deities or diwata as they were once called. Each one had their own names and functions. The term diwata comes from the Sanskrit word, devata ( देवता ), or deva which means deity. Many of the diwata were associated with aspects of nature such as the sun, moon, stars, seas, and wind. Others had roles in agriculture, fishing, marriage, and war. Some diwata were also deified ancestors, as it was believed that some who were hero’s in their lives or died honorable deaths, such as being struck by lightning, eaten by a crocodile, or killed in war, would join the diwata.
I will first be discussing the diwata mentioned in the Bisayan creation story. For Magwayan and Kaptan, I won’t go into too much detail as I have already wrote about them while going over the creation story as mentioned in the Bisayan chapter of the Boxer Codex.
Lastly, I haven’t included the deities among the Panay Bukidnon, an indigenous group on the island of Panay, as that will be for a future post. Here, I am just discussing the various deities found throughout the Bisayas as mentioned in historical accounts, dictionaries, scholarly accounts, and folklore.
✦ MAGWAYAN: Primordial Deity of the Sea & the Dead
Magwayan is the primordial deity of the sea. Today Magwayan is generally seen as a goddess, however some stories depict them as a god. Of course, like many of our deities, the concept of gender toward them is fluid, as oftentimes the deities were either genderless or in some cases had masculine and feminine versions of the same deity. Magwayan is one of the deities mentioned in the Bisayan creation story along with Kaptan (in the Boxer Codex manuscript however, they mention the deity Malaon/Laon instead of Kaptan) who helped create the islands and the first man and woman.
Magwayan’s name comes from the word “gwayan” or “kawayan”, the word for bamboo. They are the one who ferries the dead souls to Sulad, or purgatory, on their boat across the spiritual river called Lalangban. If you’ve learned and read about Greek mythology, it’s very similar to Χαρων or Charon/Kharôn, who is the spirit working under the Greek God Hades and the one who ferries the souls across a river to the underworld.
In the Bisayan creation story, the first man and woman, Si Kalak/Si Laki and Si Kabay/Si Bayi came out of a bamboo reed (this part of the myth varied from island to island, for example in Samar it was two coconuts). The bamboo is a metaphoric symbol of a boat, representing the story of how our ancestors arrived on the islands. Among the Bisayans and many other ethnic groups, there is a belief that the water, such as rivers and seas, led to the afterlife. The concept of some type of spirit or deity bringing the souls on a boat to the afterlife, represents an understanding of the ancestors worldview toward the sea and/or rivers representing life and death. This cycle of life and death through water is seen as we come into this world via the amniotic sac in our mothers womb; which is filled with fluid. When a person dies, we are once again going back to the water via the rivers and waters that are said to bring our souls to the realm of the dead.
We see this cycle play out with Magwayan. As one of the primordial deities in the creation story who helped form the islands and caused the first death of a human, they then assume the role of bringing us to the afterlife, back to the waters we originally came from.
In another variation of the Bisayan creation myth, Magwayan is the parent of Lidagat, the goddess representing the sea after Magwayan starts to take on the role of ferrying the dead. This myth is also found among the Bikolano as we will see later in this article.
“It is said that, when the Yligueynes die, the god Maguayen carries them to Inferno. When he has carried them thither in his barangay, Sumpoy, another god, sallies forth, takes them away, and leads them to Sisiburanen, the god before mentioned, who keeps them all. Good or bad alike, he takes them all on equal terms, when they go to Inferno. But the poor, who have no one to offer sacrifices for them, remain forever, in the inferno, and the god of those regions eats them, or keeps them forever in prison. From this it will be seen how little their being good or bad avails them, and how much reason they have to hate poverty.”
– Miguel de Loarca’s Relation de las Yslas Filipinas (1582)
✦ KAPTAN/MAKAPTAN: Primordial Deity of the Sky
Kaptan or Makaptan was one of the primordial and creator deities, along with the sea deity Magwayan. According to Miguel de Loarca’s 1582 account, he is the one who planted the seed into the sea that grew into a bamboo reed in which the first man and woman, Si Kalak and Si Kabay were born from. In the Bisayan creation story, he is also the one who sent a lightning bolt to the ancestor, Pandaguan, after he made funerary rites to a shark, which was the first death in the world.
The people of the coast, who are called the Yligueynes, believe that heaven and earth had no beginning, and that there were two gods, one called Captan and the other Maguayen. They believe that the land breeze and the sea breeze were married; and that the land breeze brought forth a reed, which was planted by the god Captan. When the reed grew, it broke into two sections, which became a man and a woman. To the man they gave the name of Sicalac, and that is the reason why men from that time on have been called lalac; the woman they called Sicavay, and thenceforth women have been called babayes.”
– Miguel de Loarca’s Relation de las Yslas Filipinas (1582)
“It is said that the god Captan, on hearing this, sent the flies to ascertain who the dead one was; but, as the flies did not dare to go, Captan sent the weevil, who brought back the news of the shark’s death. The god Captan was displeased at these obsequies to a fish. He and Maguayen made a thunderbolt, with which they killed Pandaguan; he remained thirty days in the infernal regions, at the end of which time the gods took pity upon him, brought him back to life, and returned him to the world. “
– Miguel de Loarca’s Relation de las Yslas Filipinas (1582)
While being one of the creator deities, Kaptan or Makaptan according to Loarca in another passage, was also said to be known to bring diseases to the world as punishment. The explanation for this was because he never tasted the delights of food and drinks from the earth. While looking at this passage through a colonial lens, we may think, oh he’s a bad god, a demon, who doesn’t like humans.
“They believe that the world has no end. They say that Macaptan dwells highest in the sky. They consider him a bad god, because he sends disease and death among them, saying that because he has not eaten anything of this world, or drunk any pitarrillas, he does not love them, and so kills them.“
– Miguel de Loarca’s Relation de las Yslas Filipinas (1582)
However, when you look at it through the eyes of how our ancestors viewed the world, and even what many of us still view and believe in, it’s not that he was a bad god as Loarca mentions. Instead, this passage is describing how our ancestors saw the diwata and spirits. If one didn’t give offerings to them, whether it was during a pag-anito (ritual offering) or simple home offerings, or if they disrespected the diwata and spirits, they would cause harm, play tricks, send locusts, and/or cause illness. This passage by Loarca on Kaptan represents this core belief among our ancestors and presently today, that illnesses can be caused by the spirits, ancestors, and diwata for transgressions against them. In order to pacify the diwata and spirits, giving regular offerings through a pag-anito, altar, or shrine is done.
In another variation of the creation myth, Kaptan was the father of Lihangin, god of the winds. In this version, Kaptan in fury over the rebellion of three of his grandsons’ against him, sent lightning bolts at them, also inadvertently sending one toward their kind granddaughter, Lisuga, thus breaking her into pieces. After the fight, Kaptan and Magwayan mourned over their loss of their grandchildren and turned their bodies into the stars, sun, moon, and earth.
✦ LAON: Goddess of Agriculture, Harvests, & Mt. Kanlaon
Laon is considered one of the supreme deities together with Kaptan and Magwayan, even being one of the deities mentioned in the Bisayan creation story with Magwayan. While other accounts mention Kaptan and Magwayan, according to the Boxer Codex manuscript, Laon replaces Kaptan under the name Malaon. According to Francisco Alcina (1668) and Miguel de Loarca (1582), they were known by many names throughout the Bisayas including Malaon, Lalahon, Raom (in Bohol), Laon Sina, Kanlaon, and Makapatag (in Samar).
Laon today is also known as Laon Sina among the Panay Bukidnon. The word “sina”, was used to refer to a foreigner or something foreign. Alicia Magos once mentioned in one of her lectures, that the Panay Bukidnon may have originally originated from the people living in the coasts, but made their way upwards to the mountains as the Spaniards arrived and there are historical references to this happening.
In many of the accounts such as Miguel de Loarca and Francisco Alcina, they say that Laon is a goddess who lives on Mt. Kanlaon on the island of Buglas (Negros). According to Loarca, she was invoked for good harvests and would send locusts to eat the crops if she was angered. Francisco Alcina in his Historia de Las Islas e indios Visayas(1668), mentions that Laon was also the creator of all things. While he states that Malaon or Laon was female, he also says that they were seen as male under the name Makapatag, by the people of Ibabao (Samar) who also called Laon by this name. For them, they referred to Makapatag as a deity who disposes everything and renders everything equal. This gender neutral view of Laon is still seen today, where some see Laon as female, others male, and others as genderless.
“They held Malaon to have been a woman because she was more mild and less stern. But in what I have been able to trace, Macapatag was the same as Malalaon. However, when they wished to engender [cause] fear, they called him by the austere [severe,strict] name.”
– Francisco Alcina’s Historia de las islas e indios visayas (1668)
With that said, Francisco Alcina seems to go back on his writings in regards to who Makapatag was. While earlier on he mentions that Malaon and Makapatag are the same deity, in Part 2 of Book Three, Chapter 25, he mentions Makapatag again, but this time he states that Makapatag is the son of Malaon. He also writes that Makapatag lived on the island of Homonhon and was likened to the Roman god Jupiter. The people of Samar would make pilgrimages to the island to offer their prayers and pag-anito to Makapatag so that he would give them health and prosperity.
So is Malaon the mother of Makapatag? Or are they the same? Who knows. As of this writing, I haven’t come across any further indication on the relationship between the two. I personally liken this scenario to how people see Laon and Kanlaon as either the same deity or separate entities, one feminine and one masculine. There are variations between the two deities and the stories of them, and thus I like to believe this was the same back then as well.
Today, Laon has been mistakenly referred to as a goddess of fire, based on her other name, Lalahon, mentioned in Miguel de Loarca’s passage on her in his Relation de las Yslas Filipinas (1582). However, this was a mistranslation from the original Spanish text which was referring to the volcano Mt. Kanlaon “hurling fire”.
“It is said that the divinity Lalahon dwells in a volcano in Negros island, whence she hurls fire. The volcano is about five leagues from the town of Arevalo. They invoke Lalahon for their harvest; when she does not choose to grant them good harvests she sends the locusts to destroy and consume the crops. This Lalahon is a woman.”
– Miguel de Loarca’s Relation de las Yslas Filipinas (1582) via the English mistranslation in Blair & Robertson
✦ LIDAGAT: Goddess of the Sea
Lidagat is the daughter of Magwayan and the goddess of the sea after Magwayan, based on the other variation of the Bisayan creation story mentioned by John Maurice Miller in his book Philippine Folklore Stories, which is a collection of folklore and myths throughout the Philippines that was published in 1904.
According to this story published by Miller, the children of Kaptan and Magwayan each had a child. While Lidagat was the daughter of Magwayan, Lihangin was the son of Kaptan. Both fell in love, married, and had 4 children: the brothers Likalibutan, Liadlaw, Libulan, and Lisuga their only daughter.
Nothing else is really mentioned by Miller on Lidagat, however Lidagat is mentioned again in the Bikolano version of this myth as written by Rosario Bonto in 1927 in his paper, Bikol Folklore, which was sent to anthropologist H. Otley Beyer. The paper has been scanned and digitized by the National Archives of the Philippines and can be found online in the H. Otley Beyer Collection.
In the Bikolano version of the myth, she is referred to as Dagat, the goddess of the sea, who was the daughter of Languit (Langit). She marries Paros, the god of the wind, and has 4 children: the brothers Daga, Aldao, Bulan, and Bitoon their daughter.
The Bikolano version of the myth mentioned by Miller is very similar, with the only differences being the names of the deities, and the child between the sky and sea deities, with Lidagat or Dagat being the daughter of the Sky instead of the Sea in the Bikolano version.
✦ LIHANGIN: God of the Wind
As mentioned previously, Lihangin is the son of Kaptan and is the god of the winds based on the other variation of the Bisayan creation story as told by John Maurice Miller in his book Philippine Folklore Stories published in 1904.
He fell in love and married Lidagat and had 4 children with her. After Lihangin passed away, his powers over the wind was given to his son, Likalibutan. In the Bikolano version of the myth however, he is called Paros.
LIKALIBUTAN: God of the Earth
Likalibutan is the eldest son of Lidagat and Lihangin. According to the story by Miller, he had a body made of rock and was known to be strong and brave. When his father Lihangin died, he controlled the winds. After awhile, the idea of having more power made Likalibutan want it even more. From this desire to gain more power, he decided that in order to satisfy his hunger for power, he would go after his grandfather, the sky god Kaptan. Enlisting and coercing the help of his brothers, they revolted and took part in the rebellion against their grandfather.
As they reached the gates of Kaptan’s home in the sky, Kaptan saw his grandsons coming to attack him. In fury, Kaptan struck lightning at his grandsons. The bolt of lightning that hit Likalibutan turned his rocky body into many pieces which fell into the sea. After Kaptan and Magwayan mourned their loss of their grandchildren, they turned him into islands where the people would live.
In the Bikolano version of the myth by Bonto (1927), Likalibutan’s name is referred to as Daga. Just like in the Bisayan version, he is also seen as a strong man with the body of a rock.
✦ LIADLAW: God of the Sun
Liadlaw is the second brother among the children of Lidagat and Lihangin. According to the creation story by Miller, he was said to be formed of gold and was known to have a happy, jolly personality. After joining Likalibutan to try and revolt against Kaptan, the lightning bolt that hit him melted him. After grieving the loss of their grandchildren, Kaptan and Magwayan turned Liadlaw into the sun.
In the Bikolano version, he’s known as Adlaw, with the same descriptions of him as mentioned by Miller.
✦ LIBULAN: God of the Moon
Libulan is the god of the moon and the third and last brother among the children of Lihangin and Lidagat. In the Bisayan creation story mentioned by Miller, Libulan was made of copper and had a more timid personality compared to his brothers. After joining them in trying to revolt against Kaptan, the lightning bolt that struck him melted him. He was later turned into the moon by Kaptan and Magwayan. The Bikolano also referred to this deity as Bulan.
✦ LISUGA: Goddess of Stars
Finally, the last of Lihangin’s and Lidagat’s children was their only daughter, the beautiful, sweet, Lisuga, who was made out of silver. When her brothers went to revolt against Kaptan, she started to look for them in worry. As she approached the sky, Kaptan still blinded by his fury against his grandsons, struck Lisuga as well and she broke into a thousand pieces. She was turned into the stars by Kaptan and Magwayan. In the Bikolano variation of the myths, she was known as Bitoon.
✦ BANWANUN: God of the Forests
According to Francisco Alcina in his Historia de Las Islas e indios Visayas (1668), Banwanun is the diwata who guarded the forest and who the people gave reverence to after every hunt. His name means, “he who lives in the forests”.
According to Alcina, they would build a little house in the forest which they called, pagiawa. This little house was tall and inside it the hunters, known as mangangayam, would put the first hog or other game they hunted and captured as an offering to Banwanun.
This first catch, especially the head, was never eaten because it was only for Banwanun. The hunters always gave their first kill in their hunt as an offering because they believed that if they didn’t, they would not be able to catch any game such as wild hogs and deer. This was because Banwanun would prevent them from doing so as the “lord of the forest”.
Banwanun is mentioned again in the Diccionario de la Lengua Bisaya, Hiligeina y Haraya de la Isla de Panay y Sugbu, y Para las Demas Islas (1637) by Alonso de Mentrida, under the word entry for Banua (Banwa). Here they say that Banwanun was a demon that lived in the grasslands and mountains who was a diwata of the babaylan. Of course, while looking at and reading historical texts, most of the time the Spaniards referred to the diwata as demon, bruja, or idol, which we must learn to ignore the bias when reading these texts to get to the main point.
✦ NAGINID: Goddess of War, Poisons, & Oils
Naginid is one of the three Bisayan war deities, including Barangaw, the god of the rainbow, and Makanduk/Malandok. She is also another part of a trinity of deities for poisons and oils including the other diwata, Arapayan and Makbarubak.
According to Miguel de Loarca, the people of Ibalon (Bikol), gave offerings of coconut oil and crocodile teeth when they were creating their oils and poisons.
Many believe the name for this deity is Ynaguinid with the Y in front, however this is a mistranslation in the English texts. In the original Spanish document, it’s recorded as Naguinid, with the “Y” being its own word in front of it to refer to the Spanish word, “y”, meaning “and” in Spanish. Phonetically, Naguinid would be Naginid in Bisaya.
Naginid is most likely derived from the Hindu-Buddhist nagi or nagini, who are the female nagas, or snake deities. In a Filipino context, this makes sense as nagas and snakes were associated with war and success.
“When they go to war or on a plundering expedition, they offer prayers to Varangao, who is the rainbow, and to their gods, Ynaguinid and Macanduc.”
Relation de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 by Miguel de Loarca
“For a few years past they have had among them one form of witchcraft which was invented by the natives of Ybalon after the Spaniards had come here. This is the invocation of certain demons, whom they call Naguined, Arapayan, and Macbarubac. To these they offer sacrifices, consisting of coconut-oil and a crocodile’s tooth; and while they make these offerings, they invoke the demons. “
Relation de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 by Miguel de Loarca
According to Francisco Alcina, some people were born with a twin snake. This was the physical form of an ancestral spirit, or umalagad, who became a guide to the child. Think of an ancestral guardian angel. Alcina mentions that those who were born with a twin snake would become someone great and valiant. He also mentions that these snakes always accompanied them during a pangayaw/mangayaw, which are raids, war, and plundering, all of which the Bisayans did prior to the Spaniards. It was a custom that whenever they traveled by ship, the snakes were also on board and went with them.
Whenever the person who had these twin snakes went into battle, Alcina says that the snake entered the body of its twin. The umalagad in the body then helped guide them to fight, thus causing fear among those who were their enemies. Carvings of the naga were also found on the karakoa, the war ships, and on the hilts of swords and daggers. Snakes were also considered as representations of the ancestors, as mentioned above with the umalagad. In traditional tattooing, or batuk, motifs representing the snake, in particular the python, represent these ancestors.
Naginid’s other attributes to her besides being the goddess of war was in regards to poisons. Snakes being snakes, are also associated with poison and several accounts mention these poisonous snakes in the Bisayas. In an account by Antonio de Morga in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) he also talks about the prevalent use of poisons. They would use the venom and poison from snakes and certain lizards, along with various different herbs. One such lizard was the tuko. They would put this in a joint of bamboo and cover it up. Morga says that it was a very strong poison that was used in serving food or drinks.
For the poisonous herbs, they would either use dried or fresh herbs and mix it in with food or it was inhaled. Some were so poisonous, that simply touching or sleeping on them would kill a person. Those who made these poisons were so skillful in creating them that they were also often used against the Spaniards according to Morga.
“Many persons usually die wretchedly by these means—especially Spaniards, who lack foresight, and who are tactless and hated because of the ill-treatment that they inflict upon the natives with whom they deal, either in the collection of their tributes, or in other matters in which they employ them, without there being any remedy for it.”
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) by Antonio de Morga
“The natives of these islands quite commonly use as venoms and poisons the herbs of that class found throughout the islands. They are so efficacious and deadly that they produce wonderful effects. There is a lizard, commonly found in the houses, somewhat dark-green in color, one palmo long, and as thick as three fingers, which is called chacon (tuko). They put this in a joint of bamboo, and cover it up. The slaver of this animal during its imprisonment is gathered. It is an exceedingly strong poison, when introduced as above stated, in the food or drink, in however minute quantities. There are various herbs known and gathered by the natives for the same use. Some of them are used dry, and others green; some are to be mixed in food, and others inhaled. Some kill by simply touching them with the hands or feet, or by sleeping upon them. The natives are so skillful in making compounds from these substances, that they mix and apply them in such a manner that they take effect at once, or at a set time—long or short, as they wish, even after a year. Many persons usually die wretchedly by these means—especially Spaniards, who lack foresight, and who are tactless and hated because of the ill-treatment that they inflict upon the natives with whom they deal, either in the collection of their tributes, or in other matters in which they employ them, without there being any remedy for it. There are certain poisonous herbs, with which, when the natives gather them, they carry, all ready, other herbs which act as antidotes. In the island of Bohol is one herb of such nature that the natives approach it from windward when they cut it from the shrub on which it grows; for the very air alone that blows over the herb is deadly. Nature did not leave this danger without a remedy, for other herbs and roots are found in the same islands, of so great efficacy and virtue that they destroy and correct the poison and mischief of the others, and are used when needed. Accordingly, when one knows what poison has been given him, it is not difficult, if recourse be had in time, to cure it, by giving the herb that is antidotal to such poison. At times it has happened that pressure has been put upon the person suspected of having committed the evil to make him bring the antidote, by which it has been remedied. There are also other general antidotes, both for preservation against poison and for mitigating the effects of poison that has been administered. But the most certain and efficacious antidotes are certain small flies or insects, of a violet color, found on certain bushes in the islands of Pintados. These are shut up in a clean bamboo joint, and covered over. There they breed and multiply. Ground rice is put in with them, and they exist thereon. Every week they are visited and the old rice removed and new rice put in, and they are kept alive by this means. If six of these insects are taken in a spoonful of wine or water—for they emit no bad odor, and taste like cress—they produce a wonderful effect. Even when people go to banquets or dinners where there is any suspicion, they are wont to take with them these insects, in order to preserve and assure themselves from any danger of poison and venom.”
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) by Antonio de Morga
From these contexts, we can piece together who Naginid was as the Bisayan goddess of war, poisons, and charms.
✦ BALANGAW: God of the Rainbow & War
He is one of the three deities mentioned in Miguel de Loarca’s account who was prayed to for success in war along with Naginid and Malandok/Makandok, and is the deified personification of the rainbow.
For the Bisayans, they believed that the rainbow was a bridge to the realm of the diwata, very similar to the Norse belief in the rainbow bridge to Asgard. They also believed that those souls who were stabbed, eaten by crocodiles or pierced by arrows, went through this rainbow bridge and became deified ancestors, as these were considered honorable deaths.
“Among their gods they reckoned also all those who perished by the sword, or who were devoured by crocodiles, as well as those killed by lightning. They thought that the souls of such immediately ascended to the blest abode by means of the rainbow, called by them balangao (balangaw).”
Native races and their customs, from Labor Evangélica (1663) by Francisco Colin
“When they go to war or on a plundering expedition, they offer prayers to Varangao, who is the rainbow, and to their gods, Naguinid and Macanduc.”
– Francisco Alcina’s Historia de las islas e indios visayas (1668)
Other than in Miguel de Loarca’s and Francisco Colin’s account of Balangaw, Francisco Alcina also mentions a bit on the rainbow. In his account he says that when the rainbow appears in the sky, they tell their children not to raise and point their finger toward it, because their hand will rot. The reason being, was because the rainbow is a great diwata being born. This belief still exists today and many groups say that pointing your finger at the rainbow, the finger will be cut off (Demetrio 1991). Other beliefs mentioned by Alcina is that the rainbow is a dress or piece of clothing of the diwata who is angered to have it pointed out. Because of this, the people would stop working for a day. Balangaw is also mentioned in the Vocabulario de lengua Bisaya (1617) by Mateo Sanchez as the arch of the gods, or the rainbow.
Similarly, the Manobo in Mindanao, who share similar beliefs and practices to the Bisayans, have a belief of the rainbow regarding war. They believe that the rainbow is the manifestation of the gods of war. The appearance of one indicates that the gods of war, and the war chiefs and warriors from the land of the dead, have come together in search of blood. If the color red dominates the other colors of the rainbow, the strongest war spirits are battling in hand-to-hand combat. If the colors are dark, it means there is a slaughter. If the rainbow seems to be approaching, precautions should be taken to protect and defend the house as a war party may be approaching (Demetrio 1991).
✦ MALANDOK/MAKANDUK: God of War
Malandok or Makanduk is the third and final deity associated with war that is mentioned by Miguel de Loarca. Not much else is known about this deity other than the account of him by Miguel de Loarca. It’s possible he was associated with weaponry as landok is the term for iron in parts of the Philippines and some tools made of iron.
Art by Alfred Ismael Galaroza @ art_of_edoy on IG
✦ ARAPAYAN: Deity of Poisons
One of the three deities mentioned by Miguel de Loarca in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 as a deity invoked when making poisonous oils, along with Naginid and Makbarubak. The etymology behind the name is still being researched.
✦ MAKBARUBAK: Deity of Poisons
One of the three deities mentioned by Miguel de Loarca in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 as a deity invoked when making poisonous oils. The etymology behind the name most likely comes from bulak or bulaklak, which means flower, alluding to the use of certain flowers and plants that were used for poisons. It can also come from the word baruk itself. Baruk in Bikolano, means flower.
Baruk is also a Bisayan term for a certain tree (Ceripos sp) that grows in the Philippines. The tree, also known as tungog or balok, is used when making the alcoholic drink, tuba. The bark of the baruk tree gives the tuba a reddish color. This doesn’t point to poisons though.
However, there is another tree called Baruk (Caryota mitis) that is used for poisons. Among the Tanabag Batak in Palawan, they use this tree to make the head of a blowpipe’s darts.
✦ SI DAPA: God of Life & Death
Si Dapa is the deity who is mentioned by Miguel de Loarca as a deity who lived in the sacred Mt. Madyaas in the island of Panay in the Western Bisayas. He was the one who determined the day of a person’s death by marking out the lifespan of every newborn on a very tall tree on Madyaas.
This passage by Loarca is the only historical mention of Si Dapa. In later accounts, such as in the anthropologist Felipe L. Jocano’s paper, Notes on Philippine Deities, he mentions that Si Dapa is a goddess married to the god Makaptan/Kaptan. In this version, Jocano says that Si Dapa ruled over Kamariitan, or the earth layer.
Within recent years, there has been a story circulating around the internet of Si Dapa falling in love with the moon deity, Libulan/Bulan. It has been a story shared over the past 8 or so years as a representation of deities who represent the LGBTQ+ community. While the story has gained a wider audience and many resonate with it and have created numerous artwork on the story, it’s important to note that this is a modern story and not historical and is based on the blog entries by http://nightskylie.blogspot.com/2015/09/sidapa.html and http://nightskylie.blogspot.com/2016/ .
While it’s important to know that there was no historical basis on this story, because it has resonated with many, as a Filipino Animist and Polythist who worships the old deities and a queer woman myself, I acknowledge how this newer story resonates with the LGBTQ+ community. However, as a Reconstructionist who practices the beliefs and practices of our ancestors and looks at the historical documents and respects what our ancestors practiced, I want to stress the clear distinction between what was historical and what is a modern story within the last few years.
✦ PANDAKI: Goddess of Redemption
Pandaki or Pandaki Sita (name as mentioned by Isabelo de los Reyes in his Las Islas Visayas Ex La Epoca de la Conquista (1889), is the goddess who was prayed to during a pag-anito for the dead.
According to Miguel de Loarca in his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1582), the people of Panay and Buglas would pray to her in the direction facing Mt. Madyaas in Panay.
“It is believed that at death all souls go directly to the infernal regions; but that, by means of the maganitos, which are the sacrifices and offerings made to the god Pandaque in sight of the mount of Mayas, they are redeemed from Simuran and Siguinarugan, gods of the lower regions.”
Relation de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 by Miguel de Loarca
According to the text in the Boxer Codex Manuscript (1590), all souls remained in Sulad (purgatory) until one day a woman name Sibay ordered the people to make a sacrifice to the gods. This sacrificial offering during the maganito/paganito, was so that those souls who have died wouldn’t remain in Sulad. Instead, they would be brought to Saad, a place in the rugged mountains where no living person could see them and where they lived out their lives feasting and celebrating in happiness.
As such, the living relatives of the dead person would give offerings and put bahandi, or wealth, in the coffin known as longon. They would then pray to Pandaki to redeem the soul so that they would be brought from Sulad to Saad. So while Magwayan delivered the souls to Sulad, Pandaki was the one who redeemed them from Sulad and prevented their souls from being eaten by the 2 ferocious and giant guardian gods, Si Ginarugan & Si Muran.
✦ SUMPOY: God Who Takes the Souls to Saad
Sumpoy is mentioned by Miguel de Loarca as the god who governs Sulad, purgatory. When the souls in Sulad were redeemed by Pandaki, he brought them to Si Buranen who ruled over Saad. Not much else is known about this deity as they are only mentioned by Loarca.
It is said that, when the Yligueynes die, the god Maguayen carries them to Inferno. When he has carried them thither in his barangay, Sumpoy, another god, sallies forth, takes them away, and leads them to Sisiburanen, the god before mentioned, who keeps them all.
Relation de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 by Miguel de Loarca
✦ SI GUNARUGAN & SI MURAN: The 2 Giants in Sulad
Si Ginarugan and Si Muran are two giant guardian deities that live in Sulad who are mentioned by Miguel de Loarca. In later texts by Felipe L. Jocano, he says that Si Ginarugan and Si Muran were two giants that would eat the souls of the dead who stayed in Sulad if they weren’t redeemed and didn’t go to Saad. This happened after the soul was reincarnated after 9 times, as reincarnation was believed among the Bisayans and mentioned by Francisco Alcina. If the soul was never redeemed and never had any paganito done for them on behalf of their relatives, they would be fed to the 2 giants after the ninth life.
✦ SI BURANEN: God of Saad
Badadum/Si Buranen is the god who ruled over Saad. He was known as Badadum to the Waray of Samar and Si Buranen to the Cebuano, Boholano, and the people of Bantayan Island. According to Francisco Alcina, they governed the world creating wealth and happiness. He lived in a very high mountain that served as a watchtower where he inspected everything and foresaw all things, knowing when it’s someones time to die. When it was time for someone to die, he sent out the god, Taba, who took the life of the person by drowning them by his hands, not just those who died by water, but in their own homes. After the soul went through Sulad and was redeemed, Si Buranen would fetch all the relatives letting them know so and so died. He would bring them to the mouth of the river with their spears and kalasag. There they would wait for the dead person to arrive in Saad while feasting and celebrating.
When the soul arrived, they took off the lid of the longon, a wooden casket, and Si Buranen would then ask them if they were the certain person they were expecting. Once seeing them tattooed, adorned with gold and other ornaments, Si Buranen acknowledged them.
In Loarca’s accout, he mentions that Si Buranen/Si Siburanen, keeps all the souls, good or bad. However, those who don’t have anyone living who would give offerings in the form of a paganito/maganito, to redeem their soul, will remain in purgatory forever where they will be eaten or kept in a prison.
It is said that, when the Yligueynes die, the god Maguayen carries them to Inferno. When he has carried them thither in his barangay, Sumpoy, another god, sallies forth, takes them away, and leads them to Sisiburanen, the god before mentioned, who keeps them all. Good or bad alike, he takes them all on equal terms, when they go to Inferno. But the poor, who have no one to offer sacrifices for them, remain forever, in the inferno, and the god of those regions eats them, or keeps them forever in prison. From this it will be seen how little their being good or bad avails them, and how much reason they have to hate poverty.
Relation de las Yslas Filipinas in 1582 by Miguel de Loarca
✦ LABAW DUMGUG: God of Marriage
According to Francisco Alcina, Labaw Dumgug was once a local hero in Panay who became deified. They were invoked in songs and during marriages. In Iloilo, Panay there was once a rock that looked like a person rowing a boat with an oar that was said to represent him. There’s no mention of this ancestral deity being known outside of Panay. Today, we actually know of Labaw Dumgug by his name, Labaw Donggon, one of the demigods in the Panayaon Epics and the son of the goddess Laon or Laon Sina.
✦ LINOG: Goddess of Earthquakes
In the Bisayan creation myth, Linog is mentioned in each historical account. She gave consul to Si Kalak and Si Kabay to marry, reassuring them that they would not be punished by the gods and that she would marry them herself as written in the Boxer Codex version of the story.
According to Francisco Alcina, Linog was a goddess who caused earthquakes through the movement of her breasts that were very large.
✦ DALIKMATA: Goddess of Eye Ailments
According to Mateo Sanchez’s Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya (1617), Dalikmata was a diwata with many eyes, comparing them to Argos in Greek mythology. He mentions Dalikmata again under the entry for the word, mata. Here he mentions that Dalikmata was also prayed to for illnesses and ailments involving the eyes.
Later in the 1895 Waray dictionary, Diccionario hispano-bisaya para las provincias de Samar y Leyte, by Antonio Sancez de la Rosa, they list Dalikmata as a type of witch with many shining eyes. This is due to people being Christians and labeling the old deities as “brujas”, along with words like “demons” or “the devil”.
In other dictionaries such as the Cebuano dictionary by Juan Felix de la Encarnacion and Alonso de Mentrida’s Hiligaynon dictionary, it lists daligmata/dalikmata as a charm or herb that is used to counteract tagadlum, which is a charm used to make oneself invisible. Basically, dalikmata in this sense was used to see invisible things.
✦ MAKABOSOG: God of the Hungry
Makabosog was known as a kind hearted god who was prayed to as the giver of food and was the god of the hungry. He was once a chief that became a deified ancestor. According to Isabelo de los Reyes in his El Folklore Filipino and Las Islas Visayas Ex La Epoca de la Conquista (1889), Makabosog was worshiped by the people living along the Araut River (now known as the Dumangas River) in Iloilo, Panay island, where he was once ruled as chief.
✦ MAYONG: Goddess of Mt. Mayon
Mayong is the goddess of Mt Mayon in Albay, Bikol. She is mentioned in the 1637 Diccionario de la Lengua Bisaya, Hiligeina y Haraya de la Isla de Panay y Sugbu, y Para las Demas Islas by Alonso de Mentrida.
In another local myth, she was the daughter of a datu called Makusog. She was a very beautiful woman and many suitors tried to win her over. After slipping on rocks in the Yawa river, a man named Panganoron passed by, saw her and saved her from the river. After this he started to court her but the jealous Pagtuga, another suitor, kidnapped Makusog in order to get Magayon’s hand in marriage. Panganoron after finding out about this, brought his warriors and went to war with Pagtuga. Panganoron won and killed Pagtuga. In joy Magayon ran to him however as she was, Panganoron was killed by an arrow by one of Pagtuga’s warriors. As Pagtugas warriors came and surrounded them, Magayon took a knife and killed herself. Her father Makusog then buried the lovers together. After some time the area started to form into a volcano and became Mt. Mayon.
This myth is still very much believed in today and within recent years there is even a photo depicting the two lovers in the clouds over Mt. Mayon when it erupted in 2018.
✦ BAKUNAWA: Naga of the Eclipse
Though not a deity per se, Bakunawa is a divine being as a type of naga, or divine sea serpent.
Stories of Bakunawa dates back to the time Spaniards arrived. There are several accounts describing Bakunawa among other divine creatures in the Philippines that cause the both the lunar and the more rarer solar eclipses. Even today, Bakunawa is known in the Bisayas and Mindanao, even extending to Luzon as being the more well known eclipse eater in the Philippines.
The story of Bakunawa is similar to that of the Tagalog Laho and Kapampangan Lawu, 2 other divine sea serpents or nagas associated with the eclipse. Laho and Lawu are obviously referenced after the Hindu deity, Rahu, who causes the eclipses, showing this connection of Hindu-Buddhist beliefs in the Philippines. The name of Bakunawa however, is different, being a compound word meaning “bent snake” in Binisaya, as this is the general belief of how Bakunawa is seen.
No. 42. When the moon is eclipsed, the Indians of various districts generally go out into the street or into the open fields, with bells, panastanes,5 etc. They strike them with great force and violence in order that they might thereby protect the moon which they say is being eaten or swallowed by the dragon, tiger, or crocodile. And the worst thing is that if they wish to say “the eclipse of the moon” it is very common in Philipinas to use this locution, saying “the dragon, tiger, or crocodile is swallowing the moon.” The Tagálogs also make use of it and say, Linamon laho bovan. It appears that the Indians learned all this from the Sangleys of China, where all the abovesaid is performed and executed to the letter. It is not right to allow them to retain these deceits of the Chinese, and not to teach them our customs and truths. All the above contents of this section is not universal in all parts. Consequently, although all ministers ought to be careful to ascertain whether they are or are not contained in their ministries, they ought not to go ahead to censure what they are not sure of, for that very thing would perhaps teach them what we are endeavoring to extirpate.
Superstitions and beliefs of the Filipinos. Tomás Ortiz (1731) in his Practica del Ministerio
One of the famous stories depicting Bakunawa is him devouring the first 6 moons, leaving one left because he was fascinated by them. With the last moon remaining, the people was scared Bakunawa would eat the last moon, leaving them in complete darkness at night. They then made lots of noise to scare off the giant sea serpent. The oldest written account of this story can be traced to Fernando A. Buyser’s , Mga Sugilanong Karaan in Cebu (1913) with a later retelling in Philippine Folk Literature: The Myths by Damiana Eugenio.
In Francisco Demetrio’s Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs (1991), a two volume series that discusses different folklore from the Philippines, here are some passages of Bakunawa and beliefs in the eclipse in general.
- 6648: Lunar Eclipse Caused by Bakunawa Devouring the Moon
– An eclipse of the moon is believed to be caused by the bakunawa devouring the moon. To help the moon in getting out of the dragon’s stomach, the people beat cans, drums, and the like. – Malaybalay, Bukidnon, 1967, Esling: by Florencio Hernandez
– During an eclipse, people shout “return the moon” because if they do not, the bakunawa will shallow the moon (Kong sa panahon usab sa eklepse magsinggit ang mga tawo nga “iuli kanamo ang bulan” kay kong dili magsinggit lagmit tukbon sa bakunawa) – Gov. Generoso, Davao Oriental, 1967, old people: by Concepcion Paraguya
– When there is a lunar eclipse, people shout, “Buhi-i ang among hampangan”, (Release our plaything). This is because of the belief that the moon is being devoured by an animal called bakunawa, a big snake. – Looc, Romblon, 1946, old people: by public school teachers
The belief in some type of giant serpent causing the eclipse and calamities such as typhoons and earthquakes are found throughout South East Asia. This giant snake is also seen to live either in the sea, underneath and holding up the world on it’s back, or up in the sky. Depictions of these divine serpents are often having a looped tail, such as the belief of Bakunawa. While often associated with the eclipses in the Bisayas, it’s also believed that Bakunawa was known to cause typhoons and earthquakes.
More details on Bakunawa and the other moon and sun eaters in the Philippines will be in another post.
✦ BULALAKAW: God of Illness
The Bulalakaw is a bird like deity associated with illness and like Bakunawa, is a divine creature associated with the sky. They are one of the more obscure divinities briefly mentioned through oral sources among both the indigenous groups and among people in the Bisayas (as well as Luzon and Mindanao) who have already been converted to Christianity.
Common descriptions of Bulalakaw include them looking like a peacock with a fiery tail, that soars across the sky bringing omens, in particular of illness and death. They are also said to live on Mt. Madyaas. The term bulalakaw in itself is a word for comets, which is also associated with bringing illness.
The term Bulalakaw and it’s cognates is found throughout the Philippines. Among the Bisayans, the belief of the Bulalakaw is still there among some folks especially in the rural provinces. In the Western Bisayas, the Bulalakaw were seen as tiny small female spirits with long fiery hair that flew in the sky.
The Kalinga call their divine bird associated with comets, Bulayaw, with a smaller version called Ses-Iwa. Among the Kalinga of the barrio, Madukayan, they share the same beliefs of the Bisayans, of the the fiery bird that descends on a house giving an omen of death. For the Bontoc, they call the bird, Furarakaw. The Kankanaey see the Bulalakaw however, not as a fiery bird, but an eel flying in the sky.
Interestingly enough, among the Bukidnon of Central Mindanao, there is a deity with the same name, however they are associated with a different element from the Bulalakaw depicted among the other ethnic groups. For the Bukidnon, the Bulalakaw is one of the 6 nature deities created by the gods, Magbabaya and Mangilala, who is associated with waters and rivers.
Aside from the Bukidnon version, the fiery creature described by the groups up in Luzon and the Bisayas must have come from the appearance of a comet flying across the sky. This phenomenon of associating comets with bad omens isn’t new, but is shared across many other cultures throughout the world.
✦ MAKA-ANDOG: God of Fishing
Stories of giants in the Philippines are found throughout the Philippines. In Samar, there is one such giant who is known to some people, especially among the older generations. This giant was known as Maka-andog, a giant ancestral deity associated with fishing.
Majority of the information that will be listed here is based on an anthropological study by anthropologists, Donn V. Hart and Harriett C. Hart, who collected various accounts of the stories of Maka-andog from 23 individuals throughout Samar, ranging from 38-85 years old. This study was conducted and published in their paper, “Maka-andog”: A Reconstructed Myth from Eastern Samar, Philippines, published in 1966.
While there’s no mention of Maka-andog in historical texts that I can find so far, the belief of giants in Samar and other parts of the Bisayas was known and told even back in the 16th century during Francisco Alcina’s time, who mentioned these giants.
The name behind this giant deity essentially means, “someone who when walking, creates a loud noise like thunder and shakes the earth like an earthquake”. The name represents this deity and what the Waray believe of him.
For the Waray of Samar, he is believed to be the first person in Eastern Samar and in some accounts, the founder of Borongan, Samar. His origin is said to have originally been from Tayabas, Quezon and went to Easter Samar because of a food shortage. It’s said that he was a farmer, a fisherman, and a tuba gatherer who lived to 500 years old. He’s described as being a very strong, 30 ft tall giant attention who could jump from Borofigan to Divinubo (Puro) Island or walk from Guiuan to Borongan and back just in one day.
Besides being strong, he was also known to have supernatural powers and was friends with the dagatnon, or sea spirits. He was also able to control the animals of the forest and fish of the sea. According to one of the accounts, he was also given offerings by hunters. In another account of Maka-andog, they would ask a prayer to him for fish.
He’s also said to have created the rivers and mountains.
“Long, long ago the earth was composed only of plains and oceans. At this time there
“Maka-andog”: A Reconstructed Myth from Eastern Samar, Philippines by Donn V. Hart and Harriett C. Hart (1966)
were no mountains, rivers, streams, or lakes. The early inhabitants of the earth were very big giants. They were so big that when they wished to visit distant islands one step could carry them across the ocean. The tuba gatherers at this time used the bangka to collect the sap of the coconut tree. One of these giants was called Maka-andog. One day he went to his fields to inspect his crops. He was surprised to see his plants wilting for lack of rain. And what do you think he did? With one of his fingers Maka-andog drew lines in the earth. These lines became the rivers. The mud sticking to his fingers fell to the earth and became the mountains we have
today.”
There are several landmarks associated with Maka-andog. Three places that are often mentioned are Pamlaran, Ayoran, and Himlaran in the northern part of Samar. In Pamlaran, there is a large rock by the sea that is said to where Maka-andog dried his raya (fishnet) where you can see the marks of the net’s sinkers.
“In the north, at Pamlaran, one can see the tall conical rock where Maka-andog hung his
“Maka-andog”: A Reconstructed Myth from Eastern Samar, Philippines by Donn V. Hart and Harriett C. Hart (1966)
raya to dry. Below [the rock, in the coral along the shore] are marks made by the sinkers
of his raya. There is also a big rock, about the size of a sack of palay [unhusked rice],
where he used to tie his abaca. He sat on a smooth stone as he twisted the abaca into twine.”
In Ayoran, there is another place where he dried his raya on a big, rocky hill where you can see both the marks of the net’s sinkers and his foot prints, similar to the Ilokanos giant, Angalo. His footprints are found throughout Samar and there are several tales of Maka-andog. One of the more well known areas today for his footprints is found in Suluan island in Guiuan, Easter Samar.
You can read more info on Maka-andog from the paper here.
✦ AMAN DAYARI: God of Good Fortune
Aman Dayari is mentioned by Francisco Alcina. According to him, Aman Dayari was prayed to for luck and good fortune. They would cover the carved figures of him made out of the wood of the dapdap tree (Erythrina variegata) in cloth and gold while asking for good fortune. These carved figures depicted him with one hand on his breast and the other covering his genitals. Not much else is known about this deity.
SOURCES:
- Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society by William Henry Scott
- Relation de las Yslas Filipinas in (1582) by Miguel de Loarca
- Boxer Codex: A Modern Spanish Transcription and English Translation of 16th Century Exploration Accounts of East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific (2016); by Garcia, Donoso, & Quirino based on the 1590 Boxer Codex Manuscript
- The Muñoz text of Francisco Alcina’s History of the Bisayan Islands (1668), translation by Paul S. Lietz
- Alcina’s report on the towns of Basay, Balangigan and Guivan (Samar) in 1668 (PHILIPPINIANA RECORDS). Philippiniana Sacra (UST) (Online)/Philippiniana Sacra (Print) by Pablo Fernandez and Cantius Kobak (1982(
- “Maka-andog”: A Reconstructed Myth from Eastern Samar, Philippines (1966), by Donn V. Hart and Harriett C. Hart
- Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs Vol 1 & 2 by Francisco Demetrio (1991)
- Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya (1617) by Mateo Sanchez
- Diccionario de la Lengua Bisaya, Hiligeina y Haraya de la Isla de Panay y Sugbu, y Para las Demas Islas (1637) by Alonso de Mentrida
- Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) by Antonio de Morga
- Native races and their customs, from Labor Evangélica (1663) by Francisco Colin
- Las Islas Visayas Ex La Epoca de la Conquista (1889) by Isabelo de los Reyes
- Diccionario hispano-bisaya para las provincias de Samar y Leyte (1895) by Antonio Sancez de la Rosa
- Superstitions and beliefs of the Filipinos via Practica del Ministerio (1731) Tomás Ortiz
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